Bibliography
Except for the inscriptions housed in Yemeni museums, the epigraphic material in the CSAI has already been published; so the first information appearing on the header is bibliographic: siglum of the inscription, concordances and bibliography. Concordances with the great collections: CIH, RES, M, CIAS, Q, CSAI are always mentioned.
e.g. Haram 42 = M 297 = RES 3310
The bibliography only lists references to a complete edition of the text or its photograph:
e.g. AM 60.1227, Jamme 1971, 131; Doe 1971, pl. VIc
Photo
As far as possible we have used legible photographs. The photographs can also be zoomed.
Language
The first major division is among the four main languages of Ancient South Arabian: Minaic, Sabaic, Qatabanic and Hadramitic.
The only grammar fairly well known so far is Sabaic thanks to the progress made over the years by A.F.L. Beeston and the German school. In the CSAI we therefore resolved to collect the non-Sabaic texts first of all, so as to ascertain the differences among the various ASA languages and then to compose grammars and lexicons of the other Ancient South Arabian languages.
Language Variety
These huge corpora have sometimes been subdivided on chronological and/or geographical basis. The Sabaic documentation has been divided mainly on chronological basis.
The texts until the 4th century BC pertain to Ancient Sabaic, while those testifying for the last two centuries of South Arabian history (4th -6th AD) are Late Sabaic. Between these two periods, from the 4th -3rd century BC to the 4th AD, the inscriptions from Sabaean
homeland are considered Middle Sabaic, while those from the high plateau south of Sana have been grouped as Raydanite (see below the remarks on "Chronology").
The inscriptions from the Yemeni high plateau should be studied together. This vast region of Yemen to the south of the country’s present capital, Sana, did not constitute a state when the Ancient South Arabian kingdoms were founded. Despite being historically marginal for several centuries it is still fundamental for a close understanding of the history of South Arabia. It produced documentation in Hadramitic, Qatabanic and Sabaic; with the supremacy of the Himyarite kingdom this documentation became exclusively Sabaic.
Documentation from the high plateau is rich in indications of contact among the various languages attested and, even more interesting but harder to highlight, probably also with the language of the dwellers of the high plateau themselves.
A further category (Undefined Sabaic) became necessary to catalogue the Sabaic inscriptions which cannot be assigned to either of those varieties for lack of information (when they are fragmentary, without image nor information about provenance).
The Qatabanic inscriptions from the high plateau are grouped into the two subgroups: marginal Qatabanic and Awsanite.
There is a consistent corpus of Minaic inscriptions attested outside southern Arabia, for instance in the oasis of Dedan, in Saudi Arabia, or a Minaic inscription on an Egyptian sarcophagus. These inscriptions are grouped into a separate group that we have called marginal Minaic.
Ancient site, Modern site
We adopted Robin’s map (Chr. Robin, U. Brunner, Map of ancient Yemen, Munich 1997) as a basis for the provenance of the inscription, using the provenance’s ancient name (when known) and its modern-day name.
The map on the website will be made interactive in the coming months – a provenance will be located on the map by clicking on its name.
Archaeological context
In the majority of cases the archaeological context is based on the content of the text, in fact very few texts are in situ or found during archaeological excavations.
A series of general contexts have been identified: agricultural context, funerary structure, irrigation, religious, urban structure.
The in situ texts or those reemployed in recent years or, as is often the case, those reemployed in ancient times are identified as such.
Chronology
Suggesting a date for an Ancient South Arabian text is often very difficult and in the majority of cases is only hypothetical.
The history of South Arabia can be divided into five broad periods:
A – early first Millennium to fourth Century B.C. (predominance of Saba£);
B – fourth to first Century B.C. (predominance of Qataban and Âa°ramawt, their alliance with Ma¥in);
C – first Century B.C. to early second Century A.D. (alliances between the tribes of the high plateau and the ASA kingdoms);
D – end second to end third Century A.D. (wars among Âimyar, Saba£ and Âa°ramawt);
E – fourth to sixth Century A.D. (unification of Yemen under Himyarite rule).
In recent years we have sought parameters for dating a text, without having to relying on palaeography alone, based on other factors like grammar, the evolution of the formularies, and the iconography which, when together with the palaeography can help to highlight the evolution of epigraphic styles in the various chronological periods.
This criterion of chronological subdivision works well with the Qatabanic corpus, with its clear centrality of the writing school.
The B Qatabanic period has been further divided into the two periods B1 (fourth to third Century B.C.) e B2 (third to first Century B.C.) (A. Avanzini, Corpus of South Arabian Inscriptions, I-III, Pisa 2004, 27-30).
Because Sabaean linguistic history stretches over 1500 years, it had to be subdivided chronologically. Beeston’s suggestion was: “Ancient Sabaic” up to the beginning of our era, “Middle Sabaic” up to the end of the third Century A.D. and then “Late Sabaic” (A.F.L. Beeston, Sabaic grammar, Manchester 1984, p. 2).
P. Stein, instead, subdivided the Sabaic corpus differently shifting the beginning of “Middle Sabaic” to the fourth-third Century B.C. (P. Stein, Untersuchungen zur Phonologie und Morphologie des Sabäischen, Rahden/Westf. 2003, pp. 5-7).
Some linguistic developments in Middle Sabaic identified by Stein: assimilation of the n- into the consonant following it; writing the -y in the dual; regular use of mimation; -n in the infinitive of derived themes; the ¥dy instead of the ¥d preposition.
There is no difficulty in recognizing the Sabaic inscriptions of the period A.
The palaeography is clear.
In the CSAI, we have had no problem so far in isolating a subgroup of late Sabaic (Period E).
The palaeography, the cultural context clearly show the date of the text.
In this period we can know the exact year when a text was written, because the date of inscriptions is based on a pre-established era.
From the fourth Century B.C. to the fourth Century A.D. we tried to divide the documentation into the periods B, C and D.
We have often made merely theoretical attempts to date a Sabaic text, any doubt was pointed out in General Remarks.
Ductus of writing
We pointed out two kind of writing ductus: boustrophedon and relief.
The inscriptions in relief are interesting; they are undoubtedly from the last period of South Arabian history and their beginnings were probably in the earlier period of the high plateau documentation.
Textual typology
Inscriptions belong to a typology when they follow certain fixed textual models.
Inscriptions are known to be largely repetitive, basically because they follow textual models with their fixed formal and structural characteristics. The textual model is not merely the content of an inscription but is a peculiar datum of the epigraphic material. For coherence with the textual model rather than the content, we classified as dedicatory rather than commemorative the texts in which the military enterprises of the dedicator are set within a dedicatory textual model.
The textual models lies in the competence of those who wrote the texts; they are not models reconstructed by researchers.
Categories like formulas, formularies and textual typologies are part of the semantic-syntactic structure of the text and are typically linguistic characteristics of the text.
We divided the texts in the following typologies: construction, dedicatory, legal and commemorative inscription.
A formulary pattern is composed of certain constituent parts (lexical items – in particular the main verb of the inscription – and morpho-syntactic functions) and their linear lay-out. The different formularies give greater clarity to the geographical and chronological differences among the various writing schools.
Royal inscriptions
For a reconstruction of the royal functions in South Arabia, it seemed useful to list the inscriptions commissioned by the kings.
Deposit
List of inscriptions by the museums collections.
General Remarks
Remarks on the text linguistic, palaeographic, historical aspects
e.g. Arbach Sayñn 1
General remarks: The text was found in Âa°ramawt territory. The most reasonable explanation for it is that the dedication was made to a Qatabanian god in Qatabanian territory, and only later brought to Âa°ramawt as war booty when Âa°ramawt defeated its long-time enemy erasing it for good from South Arabia. The beginning of the text is lacking, but it is in all likelihood a dedicatory inscription, as clearly shown by the text's formulary. The dedicator is £b¥ly, from Âinñ az-Zurayr.
[ top ]
The inscriptions have a direct relationship with the object – the actual material support it is on.
We created a broad, primary distinction between monumental inscriptions and inscriptions on objects.
However, it was deemed worthwhile to distinguish between inscriptions carved on an object, the undoubted work of a craftsman’s shop on the one hand and, on the other, inscriptions carved on mountains, walls and city gates as well as inscriptions on large monumental stelae, isolated objects placed inside a temple chamber or a town square.
In selecting the criteria for defining the support obvious ambiguities were often unavoidable.
All the construction inscriptions are texts carved on monumental supports, but the criterion for distinguishing inscriptions on city walls as opposed to other construction texts was the principal we always sought to follow, namely not to have subdivisions of material that overlap but always to be able to cross-check the data collected. If we had always called every construction inscription an inscription on a monumental support we would have repeated ourselves. Describing an inscription as being on a city wall adds information also because the walls and gates of cities do not contain merely construction inscriptions but also legal and dedicatory ones.
We adopted an ambiguous category “stone inscription” for inscriptions that neither fit into the category of monumental texts nor are carved on an object that is artistically definable.
Artefact
Some very generic categories of artistic objects have been created then divided into subgroups (a new specific section of the database - List of artefacts - permits an immediate search of the objects):
altars – divided according to shape: circular, squared, with truncated-pyramidal base
bases – of statue, of statue with dedicatory inscription, of stela
containers – like basins, boxes, bowls, ladles, vases
full-relief sculptures – of humans, animals, parts of body (like heads)
incense burners – subdivided by shape: circular, squared, with truncated-pyramidal base, with splayed foot
lamps
niches and architectural decorations
offering tables – with plain gutter or with bull's head as gutter
personal adornments – like buckles, necklaces, pendants
plaques – with figurative scene and with framework
seals – ring and stamp seals
stelae – aniconic, with framework, with eyes or stylized face, with figure in relief (man, woman, human face or figure, bull, bull's head, narrative scene)
thrones
weapons
weights
It was deemed worthwhile here to include information on texts which evoke the name of the artefact both simply to identify objects, but also to acknowledge their different geographic, chronological and social distribution.
e.g CIH 419
name of the artefact Üwr “image”
We also sought to structure the data sheets more clearly for the objects by separating the general information (material, measures) from any decoration or iconography the inscriptions may have.
e.g. BM 2002,0114.11
General information - material: alabaster; measures: h. (height) 31, w. (width) 14.5, th. (thickness) 7 (at the base), 4 (at the top), lh. (height of the letters) 2.3
Iconography – animal (bull’s head)
Figurative subjects
Much work has been done recently on this section of the data sheets towards creating iconographic indices, where the main figurative elements are listed (see the section List of figurative subjects in the website):
animal – with the possibility of recalling all the occurrences on the
base of type, gesture and view of the animal
architectural element
framework – with abstract-figurative elements or with geometric elements
furniture
human figure – on the base of the gender, view and gesture of the figure (either complete or only a part of body). Here we have listed also the
various figurative subjects related with human figures, as clothes and attributes, jewellery and weapons
monogram
plant
scene – like daily life, hunting and ritual scenes
symbols and decorative motif – in particular, three subgroups have been created, which collect geometric motifs, gods' symbols and kings' symbols
vessel
As already said, the only possible chronological indicator for many inscriptions will be the evolution of their iconography. A photograph or drawing has been included for some iconographic elements that were unclear in the general photograph.
Next come remarks on the inscription’s support. This section of the data sheet also contains descriptions of the elements within the decorations which may not be easily discernable from the photograph:
e.g. RES 4690
Support remarks: The man with the left arm raised holds a pointed short object, probably a weapon; above the camel's left rear leg a circular object is incised, interpretable like a shield or, more probably, like a water skin.
[ top ]
The text
The South Arabian alphabet has been transliterated into Latin characters. Capital letters introduce proper names.
A space separates one word from another. The symbol | is used if a word appears at the beginning or at the end of a line.
Prefixes, suffixes, conjunctions, prepositions, relative pronouns and personal pronouns are linked to the word with the following symbol: -
Graphic conventions for the text edition
[… …] square brackets with 3 dots space 3 dots: generic lacuna
[…] square brackets with dots: lacuna with many missing letters (each dot corresponds to a letter)
[xyz] texts with square brackets: text restitution certain
(xyz) texts with round brackets: text reading incomplete
<xyz> texts with angle brackets: text to be integrated
{xyz} texts with double brackets: text to be removed
((xyz)) texts with double round brackets: reading or interpretation variant of text
_ ` \ ^ text turning around the support
# change of support (indicates when the text continues on another support)
& support interrupted
* * writing mistakes of the engraver
Onomastic categories
The texts were found to contain the following main onomastic categories:
divine names and their epithets
royal names divided into royal names with titling, without titling, names of the members of the royal family
individual names
patronymics
family groups; we know it is not always easy to be sure if the name linked to the individual name with bn “son of” or “he of the family of” is the patronymic or the family name. For now we have used an ambiguous patronymic/family name category (e.g. Ja 261 Whb£l bn QÃlwm)
tribe
nisbe
toponym
names of sanctuaries
names of buildings
names of months
names of objects
names of animals (extremely rare)
proper names, whose onomastic category is not clear
Epigraphic notes
they contain comments such as written variations or previous editors integrations.
[ top ]
The translation
The text is followed by the translation and notes where applicable.
e.g. RES 3869
1 Whbm son of ¯£âm, servant of Yd¥£l Byn son of ámhyf¥ and £l-
2 âm¥ µbyn son of Mlkkrb, kings of Âa°ramawt, directed (the construction works) and built the city
3 wall of Myf¥t, made of stone, wood and bricks; and let a kabir be appointed who will conduct the functions of kabir in My-
4 f¥t, by Sin, Âwl, Âly£l and by the king of Âa°ramawt, (kabir) who is not appointed
5 to repair the city walls of Myf¥t and their towers; but let him (the kabir) properly repair any damaged part which is standing,
6 as well as the part which is not standing, and let the king of Âa°ramawt conduct his regal function
7 and repair all damage to the city walls and the towers.
Notes
Different translation of the ll. 3-7: "Et que le kabÇr qui sera en fonction à Mayfa¥at mette sa confiance en SÇn, Âawl, Âly£l et le roi de Âa°ramawt pour tout ce qu'il ne prévoit pas, et pour la réparation des deux murs de Mayfa¥at et de leur tour. Et qu'il répare les dég¨ts: ce qui sera écroulé - en réparation, et ce qui ne sera pas écroulé - en réparation. Et que continue à régner le roi de Âa°ramawt, et qu'il répare (= et que, tant qu'il régnera, le roi de Âa°ramawt fasse réparer) ce qui sera endommagé des deux murs et de la tour." (J. Ryckmans 1954, 341-342). "Et que le kabir qui sera le kabir de Mayfa¥at, obtienne son plein droit de la part de SÇn et de Âawl et du témoin de £l et du roi de Âa°ramawt, de ce qu'il ne serait pas informé, et [conséquemment] ne réparerait pas les deux enceintes de Mayfa¥at et leur tour; et qu'il répare parfaitement [toute] partie détériorée, qu'elle soit écroulé ou non; et qu'il continue de suivre fidèlement le roi de Âa°ramawt; et qu'il répare ce qui serait détérioré de ces deux enceintes et de cette tour." (Jamme 1971, 32-33)."Any (future) kabir holding office in Mayfa¥t may appeal to Sin, Âawl and ÂLY£L and the king of Hadramawt if the latter [lit. who] through unawareness (of the facts) does not keep the walls and tower of the folk of Mayfa¥t in repair; (in that case) let him (the kabir) properly repair any damaged part which is collapsing, as well as what is not yet collapsing, and exercise royal authority as representative of the king of Hadramawt, and let him so repair any damage in the walls and tower." (Beeston 1978, 202-203).
[ top ]
The site has been designed for use by both scholars and a broader public. For the benefit of the latter some inscriptions have been selected that are useful for an overall understanding of ASA culture and these can be accessed directly from the website home page: all inscriptions.
The texts are grouped along some general lines: religion, society, economy, history of art.
e.g. CIH 493
1 [... ...] son of ±myd¥,
2 ibn Qdrn dedicated to ¶-
3 t Âmym Y£wâ£l.
4 By ±êtr and ¢lmq-
5 qh and by ¶t Âmy-
6 m and by ¶t B¥dn
7 and by ám¥ and by Yd¥-
8 £l and by Yꥣmr
9 and by Ktlm.
Cultural search
Religion:
Priests: Dedication of a person to ¶t Âmym. The person dedicated could become a priest of the goddess.
e.g. CIAS 47.82/o 2
1 Gdn¥m and Âmd¥ly and the sons of both of them ¢b-
2 krb and N¥mgd of the family Mäfrt
3 and Thêkn and Fq°tn dedicated to their Lord
4 ±m ¶-Dwnm in his
5 temple Âíbm in the town ¶-À-
6 ylm a bronze statue as[... ...]
7 that they had promised to Him for the safety of (their) lord Nb-
8 ím Yhn¥m king of Qataban in the day
9 in which he carried out a military expedition as far as RÃbtn against
10 the king of Saba£ and the land of Âimyar; may ±m grant
11 them again the favour in each enterprise they will undertake
12 under His command for the safety of their lord Nbím Y-
13 hn¥m king of Qataban and their own safety and the safety in
14 their actions. They committed this statue to ±m ¶-Dwnm
15 against everyone may damage it from its place; by ±-
16 êtr ãrqn and ±m ¶-Dwnm and ¢nby
17 ãymn and Näbt
18 and ±zyn the two protectors of Ârb
Cultural search
Society:
Women: This inscription, which has a parallel in CIAS 95.11/o2=CSAI I, 157, is one text that may speak of the "autonomous role" of women in South Arabian society. In a dramatic situation, two women and their children leave two inscriptions for divine protection for their king Nbí¥m Yhn¥m, departing for his last disastrous military campaign against Saba£ in the territories of the high plateau which in ancient times had been dominated by Qataban kings.
e.g. CIH 73
Cultural search
Art:
South Arabian style: The oval motifs, the guilloche motifs on the framework are typical of the South Arabian style.
Art:
Contacts: Heraldic representation with two sphinxes with the forepaw raised in front of a stylized tree of life of Assyrian style.
[ top ]
To provide basic information about ancient South Arabian archaeological sites a number of cards has been drawn. The sites have been selected amongst those that are mostly connected with inscriptions and for which enough data are available thanks to excavations or surveys. For this reason we will be mainly dealing with sites connected with the ancient South Arabian historical period, thus not comprising the prehistoric ones. They do not propose exhaustive and in-depth technical data, which can be achieved thanks to the selected bibliography for each site.
Many useful entries are also available in the catalogues which have been issued for the expositions that have been organized in recent years:
- Paris: 1997. Yémen, au pays de la reine de Saba£. Institut du Monde Arabe.
- Wien: 1998. Jemen, Kunst und Arch«ologie im Land der K×ningin von Saba£. Kunsthistorischen Museums.
- Rome: 2000. Yemen, nel paese della Regina di Saba. Fondazione Memmo, Palazzo Ruspoli.
- London: 2002. Queen of Sheba. Treasures from Ancient Yemen. British Museum.
Our intention is also to keep an updating of the information in the case of new discoveries or as soon as new materials will be published.
Each card can be visualized either starting from one single epigraph's page (clicking on the link associated with the modern name of the site), either opening the Map's section from the main menus. Here the user will find a series of pointers for every site; by clicking on one pointer, CSAI will provide the name of the site, the link to its archaeological information's section as well as the links to all the epigraphs originating from it.
Download editing criteria .PDF 2,5 Mb